革命时期的基督教
基督教和开明专制。
腓特烈大帝(1740-1786)的普鲁士和约瑟夫二世(1765-1790)是欧洲最成功的两个开明专制君主之一。他们是统治者,他们把启蒙思想家推荐的理性主义和科学的方法应用到他们的政府中。自18世纪初启蒙运动兴起以来,知识分子就抨击教会是特权和非理性迷信的堡垒。在普鲁士和奥地利,腓特烈和约瑟夫在18世纪下半叶推动了教会改革。他们攻击国家教会的权力和权威,并不是为了镇压基督教,而是为了把基督教的实践纳入他们合理化的政府计划中。到18世纪下半叶,欧洲大多数新教国家都提供了事实上的宗教容忍的形式,虽然法律法规并不总是承认宗教自由,少数信仰在这些地方相对自由地从事宗教活动。英格兰在这方面走在了前列,因为它允许不同形式的新教从1690年代开始蓬勃发展,也为卫理公会的扩张和进化提供了空间。18世纪爱尔兰天主教徒的移民为英格兰本已多元化但主要是新教的宗教格局增添了新的层面,18世纪后期,该国繁荣的工业工厂中出现了天主教工人,这促使政府官员放松了对天主教的迫害。1753年,英国议会也通过了《犹太人入籍法》,尽管后来流行的反犹太主义迫使该法案被废除。这些措施很快被欧洲其他国家效仿。在普鲁士,腓特烈大帝他甚至比英国人走得更远,在他对普鲁士法典的修订中《Landrecht在他死后一年出版的《宗教自由宣言》中,普鲁士在法律上承认对全国所有臣民的宗教宽容。在欧洲历史上,公民身份第一次从宗教考虑中分离出来。虽然普鲁士在这方面的创新是伟大的,但它是在约瑟夫二世启蒙运动在奥地利留下了最辉煌的印记。从残酷的三十年战争开始,哈布斯堡王朝在中欧的政策就自由地使用武力迫使新教臣民改信天主教。1781年,约瑟夫二世推翻了实行了150多年的政策,宣布虽然公开礼拜仍然是天主教会的专属权利,但新教少数派现在可以私下实践他们的信仰。约瑟夫还考虑了一些对传统天主教很重要的问题,他倡导的措施旨在加强当地的宗教实践。为了适应最近的人口增长,他在自己的土地上新建了500多个教区。像大多数受启蒙思想影响的统治者一样,约瑟夫旨在削减修道制度,当时大多数知识分子认为修道制度是一种浪费,甚至是寄生的职业。政府得出的结论是,宗教秩序应该被消除,他们的财富应该用于启蒙思想家所建议的各种社会改善。在18世纪60年代的法国,一个皇家委员会关闭了426家宗教机构。在西西里岛,许多修道院只有在遵守政府的要求,为穷人提供免费教育的情况下才能继续开放。但约瑟夫二世做得更好,在他的土地上关闭了700到750座修道院。 The enormous sum that the Crown netted from the sale of these institutions' properties funded Joseph's new parishes as well as new medical training facilities in Vienna. The Jesuit order suffered the most under these measures, since they had been singled out by many Enlightenment thinkers as the most manipulative of the Roman church's many groups of clerics. Already in 1758, Portugal had begun to pressure the Papacy to suppress the order, and an ever-growing chorus from other Catholic governments joined the call for the Jesuit's dissolution. In 1773, the Papacy surrendered to these demands and dissolved the耶稣会这个机构长期以来一直在教会的传教工作中发挥着至关重要的作用罗马天主教.几代人之后,耶稣会从这种尴尬中重新崛起,但它再也没有像现代早期世界那样,在制定政治和政府政策方面发挥关键作用。
的法国大革命和Dechristianization。
18世纪的开明专制君主,如腓特烈大帝或约瑟夫二世,只寻求按照启蒙哲学家所倡导的路线改革他们的国家教会。但革命者上台后的几年爆发了法国大革命1789年,他经常试图彻底摧毁教会。尤其是法国的革命者,他们经常被指责将启蒙运动的理性主义引向其逻辑结论。这些政治领导人并没有试图完成一些既有的政治议程,而是陷入了对当下的反应。就像1789年之后革命年代的许多事件一样,他们也被事件的发展所带走。革命事件的压力促使法国革命者处决国王和王后,也导致他们解散天主教会。几代人以前,历史学家创造了“去基督教化”这个词,来描述大革命前几年法国普遍存在的知识分子情绪。许多学者认为,这些年来,知识分子中基督教信仰的实践有明显的下降。不幸的是,用来证明这种下降的措施是有问题的。就像在英国和欧洲大陆的其他地方一样,法国的基督教观念在法国大革命前夕发生了变化,但它们并没有消失。事实上,法国天主教徒最初并不反对大革命,在国民议会中,神职人员在代表中占多数。国民议会是一个革命性的机构,它首先投票将教会土地国有化,后来又投票解散修道院。 But conflicts soon arose between the Revolution and Catholics concerning the Civil Constitution of 1790. This document made the church into a department of state, and significantly, required churchmen to swear an oath of loyalty to the new government as state employees. The papacy, however, refused to permit the clergy to swear the oath, and churchmen were thus forced to decide whether their loyalties lay with the Revolution or with Rome. About half of France's clergy, including some initially sympathetic to the Revolution, refused to swear, and were soon persecuted as traitors. Devout Catholics soon rose to defend these "refractory" priests, creating an underground religious movement in France in which traditional Catholic rites were practiced in violation of the Revolution's dictates. This underground became the nucleus of opposition to the new government and thus condemned Catholicism in the minds of many revolutionaries as a reactionary force. As the movement's leaders saw it, the only way for France and the Revolution to go forward was to destroy any connection with the country's Catholic past, and thus a decided policy of active dechristianization took shape. Catholicism was jettisoned as the official faith of the French Republic; the government appropriated and sold churches and their furnishings. And in one of the most curious moves, the Revolution's leaders even abandoned the traditional Christian week and calendar. In 1793, "Year One" of the Revolution, the week was reorganized into ten days known as "decadi" and the months were given new revolutionary names. Even more important than these measures were the Revolution's efforts to replace Christianity with the practice of a new Cult of Reason, a mixture of ideas and values drawn from science and history. To counter what he took to be the atheism implicit in this Cult of Reason, Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794), the leader of the Revolution at the time, commandeered Paris' Cathedral of Notre Dame and staged an extraordinary ceremony during which he paid homage to a "Supreme Being," a projection of his own Deist sensibilities. The Cult of the Supreme Being did not catch on, nor did the Cult of Reason, and Catholicism continued to be practiced in France, albeit out of public view, until the historic relationship between France and Rome was reestablished by Napoleon in 1801.
面向未来。
法国大革命试图摆脱基督教历史的惊人尝试,部分原因在于国家教会及其制度化的宗教长期以来在早期现代欧洲扮演着非常有争议的角色。虽然在17世纪和18世纪的大部分时间里,国家教会作为国家统治力量在整个欧洲被普遍接受和建立,但国家教会是一个从未在许多欧洲人的情感上产生过良好影响的机构。这些年来,随着欧洲在宗教上越来越多元化,在严肃的基督徒和对宗教漠不关心的人看来,国教越来越像是遥远过去的遗迹。但是,尽管法国的革命者希望建立一个脱离传统宗教考虑的新国家,但他们的自然神论和无神论在很大程度上与这个仍然尊重基督教教义的国家格格不入。在接下来的一个世纪里,基督教不仅在法国,而且在整个欧洲都有了戏剧性的复兴。这一复兴的新现实意味着,宗教被迫与许多意识形态竞争,以争夺欧洲人的心灵和思想。强迫、不容忍和灌输的传统制度在近代早期的欧洲国家中具有强大的影响力,但在欧洲人可以自由选择相信或不相信的世界中,这些制度几乎没有什么影响。
来源
Jack R. Censer和Lynn Hunt,自由,平等,博爱:法国大革命探索宾夕法尼亚州帕克大学(University Park):宾夕法尼亚州立大学出版社,2001)。
蒂莫西·塔克特18世纪法国的宗教、革命与地域文化(普林斯顿大学:普林斯顿大学出版社,1986)。
米歇尔•Vovelle宗教等Révolution(巴黎:Hatchette, 1976)。